LLMs offer tools for historical analysis of primary sources. In a previous post, I produced synthetic data for an LLM-based analysis of the 1939 International Genetical Congress in Edinburgh. In this post, I provide data for an LLM-based analysis of the short-lived Society for the Study of Speciation (SSS), organised by Alfred Emerson. The documents under study are three items from the 1941 circular Emerson produced for the Society:
- Bibliography, which contains 1250 citations
- Address List, which contains addresses for 374 individuals
- News and Information, which contains notes from individuals about their current work as well as one, long review essay written by Alfred Emerson about the 1940 volume, New Systematics, edited by Julian Huxley.
I previously published an open-access scholarly edition of Emerson’s circulars in Regular Contact With Anyone Interested. Documents of the Society for the Study of Speciation. 2nd edition (Cain 2007), and a scholarly journal article about the society’s formation and its short-lived activities:
- Cain, Joseph. 2000. Towards a ‘greater degree of integration’: The Society for the Study of Speciation, 1939-1941. British Journal for the History of Science 33: 85-108. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000708749900388X
Analysis of the circular material is ideal for LLM-powered tools because (1) content consists of long lists of structured, factual information, (2) those lists have notations contributing to hierarchical organisation but that hierarchy is difficult to use in the form of the circulars, and (3) the overall amount of content is small by LLM standards, so analysis is not computationally overwhelming. The goal of analysis using an LLM in this case is pattern-finding to create grist for further historical analysis.
To examine Emerson’s circulars I used Google NotebookLM because this tool allows closed content ecosystems rather than drawing from general internet knowledge. For instance, it’s possible to restrict the analysis to one specific document or to a select combination of documents. NotebookLM is powered by Google’s Gemini platform; in this case, Gemini 2.5 Flash.
My method consisted of uploading three SSS documents as pdfs derived from Cain (2007). A separate pdf consisting of Emerson’s classification (Cain 2007: 103, here named “SSS classification”) was uploaded for ease of reference. Simple queries were undertaken as a first step to confirm complete upload and functionality. Some additional learning was required by the LLM. (For instance, 1250 citations are included in the Bibliography but 1249 citations are numbered. At first the LLM asserted #1250 was missing. In fact, for some reason, Emerson used #320 twice (as #320(1) and #320(2)), making the total number of citations 1250 despite numbering only 1249. This pattern needed to be described to the LLM.)
Analysis of Society for the Study of Speciation Using LLM
NotebookLM provides facility for an audio overview of content. This is the “deep dive” summary of the “News and Information” section:
Sample Queries
Below is a sample of queries regarding Emerson’s circulars. Some queries focus on one of the three documents. Other queries seek integrated connections and draw from multiple documents in the content trio.
For the Address List, rank all institutions with more than one individual.
Based on the “Address List” excerpts provided, 53 institutions or organizations have two or more individuals listed.
| Rank | Institution Name | Number of Individuals |
| 1. | University of California, Berkeley (Includes Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and affiliated departments) | 18 |
| 2. | University of Chicago | 13 |
| 3. | American Museum of Natural History | 10 |
| 4. | University of Minnesota (Includes University Farm and Minneapolis departments) | 10 |
| 5. | University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (Includes Museum of Zoology and Laboratory of Vertebrate Genetics) | 8 |
| 6. | University of Texas, Austin | 8 |
| 7. | Harvard University (Includes Biological Laboratories, Harvard Medical School, and Gray Herbarium) | 7 |
| 8. | Stanford University (Excluding Carnegie Institution affiliates located there) | 7 |
| 9. | University of Florida, Gainesville | 7 |
| 10. | Yale University (Includes Peabody Museum and Osborn Zoological Laboratory) | 7 |
| 11. | Carnegie Institution of Washington (Located at Cold Spring Harbor, Mission Canyon, and Stanford) | 6 |
| 12. | Field Museum of Natural History | 6 |
| 13. | Iowa State College | 6 |
| 14. | Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge | 6 |
| 15. | University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia | 6 |
| 16. | University of Wisconsin, Madison | 6 |
| 17. | Indiana University | 5 |
| 18. | Princeton University | 5 |
| 19. | University of Illinois | 5 |
| 20. | University of Toronto | 5 |
| 21. | Carnegie Museum (or Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh) | 4 |
| 22. | Johns Hopkins University (or Medical School) | 4 |
| 23. | University of Colorado, Boulder | 4 |
| 24. | Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain | 3 |
| 25. | California Institute of Technology | 3 |
| 26. | Colorado State College | 3 |
| 27. | Columbia University | 3 |
| 28. | Cornell University | 3 |
| 29. | New York Botanical Garden | 3 |
| 30. | Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology | 3 |
| 31. | Texas Agricultural Experimental Station (College Station, TX) | 3 |
| 32. | United States National Museum, Washington, DC | 3 |
| 33. | University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill | 3 |
| 34. | University of Oklahoma, Norman | 3 |
| 35. | University of Tennessee, Knoxville | 3 |
| 36. | Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia | 2 |
| 37. | Amherst College | 2 |
| 38. | California Academy of Sciences | 2 |
| 39. | City College of New York | 2 |
| 40. | Cleveland Museum of Natural History | 2 |
| 41. | Duke University | 2 |
| 42. | Louisiana State University | 2 |
| 43. | McGill University, Montreal | 2 |
| 44. | Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis | 2 |
| 45. | New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, NY | 2 |
| 46. | New York Aquarium | 2 |
| 47. | Swarthmore College | 2 |
| 48. | University of California, Los Angeles | 2 |
| 49. | University of Kansas | 2 |
| 50. | University of North Dakota | 2 |
| 51. | University of Rochester | 2 |
| 52. | University of Washington, Seattle | 2 |
| 53. | Western Pennsylvania Hospital, Pittsburgh | 2 |
| 54. | Williams College, Williamstown, MA | 2 |
For the Address List, sort the addresses by continent, country, and US state. Provide the results in terms of highest to lowest numbers.
Based on the analysis of the addresses listed in the provided excerpts of the “Address List”, there are a total of 204 unique addresses included in the ranking.
The addresses are sorted first by continent (highest frequency to lowest), then by country, and finally by US State (highest frequency to lowest).
| Continent | Country | State (US or Canadian Province) | Number of Addresses |
| 1. North America | USA | Total: 179 | |
| California (CA) | 26 | ||
| New York (NY) | 24 | ||
| Illinois (IL) | 16 | ||
| Massachusetts (MA) | 11 | ||
| Texas (TX) | 9 | ||
| Pennsylvania (PA) | 8 | ||
| Minnesota (MN) | 7 | ||
| Connecticut (CT) | 6 | ||
| District of Columbia (DC) | 6 | ||
| Colorado (CO) | 5 | ||
| Florida (FL) | 5 | ||
| Michigan (MI) | 5 | ||
| North Carolina (NC) | 5 | ||
| Indiana (IN) | 4 | ||
| Iowa (IA) | 4 | ||
| Ohio (OH) | 4 | ||
| Maryland (MD) | 3 | ||
| New Jersey (NJ) | 3 | ||
| Virginia (VA) | 3 | ||
| Wisconsin (WI) | 3 | ||
| Arizona (AZ) | 2 | ||
| Hawaii (HI) | 2 | ||
| Kansas (KS) | 2 | ||
| Louisiana (LA) | 2 | ||
| Missouri (MO) | 2 | ||
| New Hampshire (NH) | 2 | ||
| North Dakota (ND) | 2 | ||
| Oklahoma (OK) | 2 | ||
| Oregon (OR) | 2 | ||
| Tennessee (TN) | 2 | ||
| Utah (UT) | 2 | ||
| Arkansas (AR) | 1 | ||
| Montana (MT) | 1 | ||
| Nebraska (NE) | 1 | ||
| Rhode Island (RI) | 1 | ||
| West Virginia (WV) | 1 | ||
| Canada | Total: 9 | ||
| Ontario (ON) | 4 | ||
| British Columbia (BC) | 2 | ||
| Quebec (QC) | 2 | ||
| Nova Scotia (NS) | 1 | ||
| Jamaica | N/A | 1 | |
| NORTH AMERICA TOTAL | 189 | ||
| 2. Europe | United Kingdom (UK) | Total: 8 | |
| England (London, Oxford, Kew, Surrey) | 5 | ||
| Scotland (Glasgow, Edinburgh) | 3 | ||
| U.S.S.R. | N/A (Moscow) | 1 | |
| EUROPE TOTAL | 9 | ||
| 3. South America | Brazil | N/A (Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro) | 2 |
| Peru | N/A (Negritos) | 1 | |
| Venezuela | N/A (Caracas) | 1 | |
| SOUTH AMERICA TOTAL | 4 | ||
| 4. Africa | South Africa | N/A (Johannesburg) | 1 |
| AFRICA TOTAL | 1 | ||
| 5. Oceania | Australia | N/A (Melbourne) | 1 |
| OCEANIA TOTAL | 1 | ||
| GRAND TOTAL OF ADDRESSES | 204 |
The discrepancy in numbers arises because the number 374 represents the total number of individuals listed on the address list excerpts, while the number 204 represents the count of unique addresses or physical locations identified for those individuals.
In essence, 374 is the total personnel count, but many individuals share the same workplace or mailing address.
List the individuals in the Address List located outside the United States or Canada.
The total number of individuals listed on the Address List is 374, of which 18 are located outside of the United States or Canada.
The individuals located outside the United States or Canada, along with their associated country and affiliation, are:
| Individual | Institution and Location | Continent/Country |
| Bates, Marston | Rockefeller Foundation, 49 W. 49th Street, New York, NY (Note: Although the address is NYC, the biographical references may imply international work, but strictly interpreting the address list places him in the USA. However, his work involves foreign addresses, but based on the provided list's address, he is US-based. Excluding based on address list literal reading.) | USA (NYC listed) |
| Downes, John Antony | Dept. Anatomy, The University, Glasgow, Scotland | Europe (UK) |
| Elton, Charles | Bureau of Animal Populations, University Museum, Oxford, England | Europe (UK) |
| Frizzell, Donald Leslie | Geologist, International Petroleum Co. Ltd., Negritos, Peru | South America (Peru) |
| Gates, Reginald Ruggles | Kings College London, The Strand, London, England | Europe (UK) |
| Gause, G. F. | Dept. Biology, Malaja Bronnaia 12, kv, 33, Moscow, U.S.S.R. | Europe/Asia (USSR) |
| Gluckmann, E. | U. the Witwatersrand, Milner Park, Johannesburg, South Africa | Africa (South Africa) |
| Gregor, J. L. | Scottish Plant Breeding Station, Corstorphine, Edinburgh, Scotland | Europe (UK) |
| Hubbard, Charles Edward | Herbarium, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, Surrey, UK | Europe (UK) |
| Huxley, Julian Sorell | Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, UK | Europe (UK) |
| Kesteven, G. L. | 318 Post Office Place, Melbourne, Australia | Australia/Oceania |
| Lane, John | Institute of Hygiene Sao Paulo, Caixa 2920, Sao Paulo, Brazil | South America (Brazil) |
| Lewis, C. Bernard | Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica | North America (Jamaica) |
| Muller, Hermann Hoseph | Institute of Animal Genetics, U. Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland | Europe (UK) |
| Schafer, Brenhilda | John Innes Horticultural Institution, 31 Mostyn Road, London, SW19, England | Europe (UK) |
| Scott, James Allen | Venezuelan Institute of Hygiene, Campo Alegre, Chacao, Caracas, Venezuela | South America (Venezuela) |
| Shannon, Raymond Corbett | Fundacao Rockefeller, Caixa Postal 49, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | South America (Brazil) |
| Smith, C. Horton | Agricultural Research Council, 6A Deans Yard, London, SW1, England | Europe (UK) |
| Southern, Henry Neville | Bureau of Animal Population, University Museum Oxford, Oxford, England | Europe (UK) |
| Uvarov, Boris Petrvitch | Imperial Institute of Entomology, British Museum of Natural History, London, England | Europe (UK) |
The remaining 356 individuals from the total list of 374 have addresses located within the United States or Canada.
For all names on the Address List, count the different types of institution. For example “University”, “College”, “Institute”, “Museum”, “Station”, etc. Rank in terms of most frequent to least frequent.
Based on the analysis of the 173 unique names and their affiliated organizations listed in the SSS Address List, institutions can be categorized by type. The ranking below reflects the frequency of these institutional types, from most frequent to least frequent:
| Rank | Institution Type | Total Count (Individuals) |
| 1 | University | 103 |
| 2 | Museum / Zoo / Aquarium | 26 |
| 3 | College | 21 |
| 4 | Institute / Foundation | 10 |
| 5 | Station (Experiment or Biological) | 8 |
| 6 | Garden / Arboretum / Herbarium | 5 |
Detailed Breakdown of Institutional Types
1. University (103) This category includes addresses explicitly labeled “U.” or “University of X,” as well as specialized university divisions such as Medical Schools, Biological Laboratories, and large internal research divisions that are not branded as independent institutes (e.g., U. Texas, U. California, U. Chicago, U. Michigan).
2. Museum / Zoo / Aquarium (26) This category includes institutions primarily focused on public collections, exhibition, and natural history research, regardless of whether they are affiliated with a university or are standalone entities:
- American Museum of Natural History (AMNH)
- Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ)
- Field Museum of Natural History
- Carnegie Museum (Pittsburgh)
- United States National Museum / Smithsonian Institution
- Cleveland Museum of Natural History
- New York Aquarium
- Chicago Academy of Sciences
3. College (21) This includes institutions explicitly named “College” or small liberal arts colleges often performing primarily academic or teaching roles, even if research is conducted there (e.g., Amherst College, Fort Hays Kansas State College, Iowa State College, City College of New York, Swarthmore College).
4. Institute / Foundation (10) This category includes large, independent research-focused entities or organizations that function as central coordinating or granting bodies:
- Carnegie Institution of Washington (includes Cold Spring Harbor staff)
- Rockefeller Foundation (Bates, Shannon)
- National Institute of Health (Evans, A. C.)
- Venezuelan Institute of Hygiene
- Imperial Institute of Entomology
5. Station (Experiment or Biological) (8) This includes governmental or agricultural research centers often focused on field or applied biological studies:
- Texas Agricultural Experimental Station
- New York Agricultural Experiment Station
- Connecticut State Experimental Station
- Scottish Plant Breeding Station
- Pacific Biological Station
6. Garden / Arboretum / Herbarium (5) These are specialized institutions focusing on plant taxonomy and cultivation:
- New York Botanical Garden
- Missouri Botanical Garden
- Arnold Arboretum
- Royal Botanic Garden, Kew
(Note: The remaining four individuals are listed at private residences, non-academic government offices, or private businesses, and do not fit neatly into the top six institutional categories.)
Count the number of citations in the Bibliography for each category in Emerson’s classification. In cases where multiple categories are provided, count the citation for each single category.
The following table lists the classification codes used by Emerson in the SSS Bibliography, provides the description of the corresponding category from the SSS Classification Key, and ranks them by the total number of citations attributed to that classification, counting each time the code appears in the bibliography (total 1,250 citations)
| Rank | Emerson’s Classification Code | Classification Category Name | Total Citation Count |
| 2 | G | General Papers dealing with many factors | 123 |
| 1 | IA | Morphological distinctions | 162 |
| 16 | IA1 | Embryological distinctions | 18 |
| 4 | IB | Cytological distinctions | 88 |
| 8 | IC | Genetic distinctions | 66 |
| 3 | ID | Physiological distinctions | 89 |
| 18 (Tie) | IE | Psychological (Behavioristic) distinctions | 14 |
| 10 | IF | Ecologic distinctions | 44 |
| 7 | IG | Geographic distinctions | 68 |
| 12 | IH | Stratigraphic (Fossil sequence) distinctions | 28 |
| 13 | IIA | Gene Mutation | 25 |
| 5 | IIB | Recombination | 83 |
| 6 | IIC | Genome (Chromosome) mutation | 77 |
| 33 (Tie) | IID | Non-Mendelian (cytoplasmic) inheritance | 4 |
| 37 (Tie) | IIE | Paedomorphosis. Neoteny | 2 |
| 30 (Tie) | IIF | Orthogenesis. Heterogony. Heterochrony. Allometry | 5 |
| 24 (Tie) | IIG | Recapitulation. Vestigal Structures. Stability of Type | 8 |
| 26 (Tie) | IIH | Lamarckian evolution. The inheritance of acquired somatic characters | 7 |
| 18 (Tie) | IIIA | Topographical isolation | 14 |
| 33 (Tie) | IIIB | Spatial isolation | 4 |
| 30 (Tie) | IIIC | Time isolation | 5 |
| 18 (Tie) | IIID | Ecological isolation | 14 |
| 41 | IIIE | Seasonal isolation | 1 |
| 33 (Tie) | IIIF1 | Behavior (Psychological) isolation | 4 |
| IIIF2 | Physiological isolation (proper) | 0 | |
| IIIF3 | Mechanical isolation | 0 | |
| 15 | IIIF4 | Gamete Sterility (Infertility) | 22 |
| 40 | IIIF5 | Embryological impairment (Inviability) | 3 |
| 26 (Tie) | IIIF6 | Adult sterility | 7 |
| 21 | IIIF7 | Parthenogenesis. Apomixis | 12 |
| IIIF8 | Asexual reproduction | 0 | |
| 36 | IIIF9 | Population waves | 3 |
| 22 | IIIF10 | Migration pressure | 10 |
| 28 (Tie) | IV | Natural Selection (General/Unspecified) | 6 |
| IVA | Overproduction | 0 | |
| 23 (Tie) | IVB | Competition | 9 |
| 37 (Tie) | IVC | Preadaptation | 2 |
| 30 (Tie) | IVD | Degenerative evolution | 5 |
| 17 | IVE | Convergence | 15 |
| 28 (Tie) | IVF | New habitats (radiation) | 6 |
| 9 | IVG | Physical and chemical factor correlation | 59 |
| 14 | IVH | Biotic factor correlation | 24 |
| 37 (Tie) | IVI | Cyclomorphosis | 2 |
| 23 (Tie) | IVJ | Sexual characters. Sex ratios | 9 |
| 24 (Tie) | IVK | Population units | 8 |
| 11 | V | Artificial Selection | 34 |
Some categories had 0 entries in the SSS bibliography. These were:
- IVA Overproduction
- IIIF2 Physiological isolation (proper)
- IIIF3 Mechanical isolation
- IIIF8 Asexual reproduction
Count the number of category codes for each citation in the bibliography and list the number of citations that have 1 category code, 2 codes, 3 codes, etc.
The majority of publications in the SSS bibliography were assigned either one or two classification codes.
| Number of Classification Codes per Citation | Number of Citations |
| 1 | 828 |
| 2 | 248 |
| 3 | 101 |
| 4 | 49 |
| 5 | 14 |
| 6 | 5 |
| 7 | 1 |
| 9 | 1 |
Analysis of Category Frequency
• 1 Category (828 Citations): The vast majority of publications are highly specialized, focusing on a single primary factor, such as Morphological Distinctions (IA) or General Papers (G).
• 2 Categories (248 Citations): This second largest group often links a primary distinction (e.g., Morphological, Cytological, Genetic) with a cause (e.g., Recombination) or a geographic context (e.g., Geographic Distinctions, Topographical Isolation).
• 3 Categories (101 Citations): These papers represent more integrative studies, often linking a distinction, a genetic mechanism (e.g., Genome mutation), and an isolation mechanism (e.g., IIIF4: Gamete Sterility).
• Maximum Categories (9 Codes): Only one publication was assigned nine codes: Cott, H. B. 1940. Adaptive coloration in animals, indicating an extremely broad coverage of speciation factors including morphology, behavior, cytoplasmic inheritance, natural selection types (competition, convergence, physical/biotic correlation, and sexual selection).
• Zero Categories: Four classification categories—IVA (Overproduction), IIIF2 (Physiological isolation proper), IIIF3 (Mechanical isolation), and IIIF8 (Asexual reproduction)—had zero citations assigned to them in the bibliography (as established in conversation history).
For citations with more than 1 category code, rank the most frequent combinations.
This ranking analyzes the frequency of classification code combinations for citations in the SSS Bibliography that were assigned more than one code. This means publications covering two or more factors related to speciation (e.g., Genetic Distinctions combined with Recombination).
The total number of multi-coded citations analyzed from the source material is 422.
| Combination of Emerson's Classification Codes | Total Frequency |
| IC, IIB (Genetic distinctions, Recombination) | 30 |
| IB, IIC (Cytological distinctions, Genome/Chromosome mutation) | 14 |
| IA, IG, IIIA (Morphological distinctions, Geographic distinctions, Topographical isolation) | 9 |
| IA, IIB (Morphological distinctions, Recombination) | 9 |
| IB, IIC, IIIF4 (Cytological distinctions, Genome mutation, Gamete Sterility/Infertility) | 7 |
| IC, IIA (Genetic distinctions, Gene Mutation) | 7 |
| IA, IG (Morphological distinctions, Geographic distinctions) | 6 |
| IIB, IIC, IIIF4 (Recombination, Genome mutation, Gamete Sterility/Infertility) | 6 |
| ID, IIB (Physiological distinctions, Recombination) | 5 |
| IA, IF, IVG (Morphological, Ecologic, Physical/chemical factor correlation) | 5 |
| IB, IIB, IIC (Cytological, Recombination, Genome mutation) | 4 |
| IB, IIC, V (Cytological, Genome mutation, Artificial Selection) | 4 |
| IIC, IIIF4 (Genome mutation, Gamete Sterility/Infertility) | 4 |
| IA1, ID (Embryological distinctions, Physiological distinctions) | 4 |
| ID, IF, IVG (Physiological, Ecologic, Physical/chemical factor correlation) | 4 |
Analysis
The top combinations reflect the Society’s primary interests in Experimental Taxonomy and Genetics:
1. IC, IIB (Genetic distinctions, Recombination): This pairing is the most frequent, emphasizing publications that analyze species differences based on Mendelian genetics and the production of new combinations of characters through hybridization or sexual reproduction.
2. IB, IIC (Cytological distinctions, Genome mutation): This second-most frequent combination highlights the importance of studying polyploidy and chromosome structure (IIC) as primary evidence of species differentiation (IB), often involving artificial induction or analysis in plant genera like Nicotiana and Oenothera.
3. IA, IG, IIIA (Morphological, Geographic, Topographical isolation): This triplet signifies classical taxonomic or zoogeographic papers where a morphological distinction (IA) is strongly correlated with a specific geographical distribution (IG) restricted by physical barriers (IIIA).
Count the number of citations in each language. Rank the languages from most frequent to least frequent.
The query you provided is: “Count the number of citations in each language. Include all 1250 items in the bibliography. Rank the languages from most frequent to least frequent.”
The bibliography contains 1250 items (citations 1 through 1249, with item 320 consisting of 320(1) and 320(2)). The language of each citation is derived from the titles of the articles and the names of the journals listed in the bibliography excerpts.
Based on the analysis of the 1250 citations, the languages and their frequencies are counted and ranked as follows:
| Rank | Language | Number of Citations |
| 1. | English | 1125 |
| 2. | German | 84 |
| 3. | French | 16 |
| 4. | Italian | 6 |
| 5. | Japanese | 4 |
| 6. | Russian (or Slavic context) | 4 |
| 7. | Spanish | 4 |
| 8. | Czech (or Slavic context) | 3 |
| 9. | Dutch | 2 |
| 10. | Romanian | 2 |
Analysis
The majority of the entries are published in English-language journals or monographs, primarily sourced from the United States and the United Kingdom. Examples include publications such as the American Naturalist, Journal of Genetics, Genetics, Ecology, and various University publications.
The total count for the 1250 items in the bibliography is distributed among ten different languages:
1. English (1125 citations) English is the dominant language, associated with journals and publications like the American Journal of Botany, Journal of Mammalogy, and works cited from the collection, The New Systematics, edited by J. S. Huxley.
2. German (84 citations) German articles are identified primarily through journal titles like Zeitschrift fur Induktive Abstammungslehre und Verebungslehre, Zoologischer Anzeiger, Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie, Planta, and Chromosoma.
3. French (16 citations) French titles appear in publications such as Compte rendu de l’Academie de Sciences Paris, Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, Bulletin Societe zoologique de France, and Archives de zoologie experimentale et generale.
4. Italian (6 citations) Italian publications are identified by journals such as Giornale di batteriologia e immunologia, Nuovo giornale botanico italiano e Bulletino della Societa botanica italiana, and Estratto da Scientia Genetica.
5-7. Tied at 4 citations
- Japanese (4 citations): These appear in journals from a Japanese context, such as Cytologia (Tokyo) and Japanese Journal of Genetics .
- Russian (4 citations): These are inferred from publications from institutions associated with the USSR, often containing Slavic titles or context, such as Solektzia i Semenovodstvo and the Trans Zool Biol Inst Sci Res, Gorky State U, Kharkov Sec Darwinism and Genetics.
- Spanish (4 citations): These citations are found in journals like Revista Argentina de argronomia, Anales de la Esucuela Nacional de Ciencias Biologicas, and Revista del Museo de La Plata.
8. Czech (3 citations) These citations are identified through the journal Losnicka Prace, which contains Slavic-language titles.
9-10. Tied at 2 citations
- Dutch (2 citations): These citations appear in Nederland boschbouwtijdschriff and Federland Dendrol Vereen Jearbock, and Recueil des travaux botaniques neerlandais.
- Romanian (2 citations): These are identified from the journal Analele Institutului de cercetari agronomice al Academia Republici populare Romine.
Using the Address List and the Bibliography, rank the top 20 institutions in terms of the highest number of citations in the bibliography. Use the author addresses to identify the institutions.
This ranking is derived by matching the authors cited in the bibliography (all 1,250 items, including the sub-numbered entry 320(1) and 320(2)) against the institutional affiliations provided in the SSS Address List. If an author or co-author is listed in the Address List with an institutional affiliation, that institution receives credit for the citation.
The top 20 institutions, ranked by the total number of citations associated with their affiliated authors, are:
| Rank | Institution | Citation Count |
| 1 | University of California, Berkeley | 23 |
| 2 | University of Wisconsin, Madison | 20 |
| 3 | Harvard University (Including Biological Labs, Medical School, Arnold Arboretum, Museum of Comparative Zoology) | 18 |
| 4 | Carnegie Institution of Washington (Including Cold Spring Harbor, Stanford, Santa Barbara) | 16 |
| 5 | U. California, Los Angeles | 15 |
| 6 | American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) | 12 |
| 7 | University of Michigan, Ann Arbor | 12 |
| 8 | University of Texas, Austin | 12 |
| 9 | University of Chicago | 11 |
| 10 | Texas Agricultural Experimental Station (College Station) | 9 |
| 11 | Cornell University | 8 |
| 12 | Amherst College | 7 |
| 13 | U. Colorado, Boulder | 6 |
| 14 | U. Florida, Gainesville | 6 |
| 15 | U. Minnesota, St. Paul/Minneapolis | 6 |
| 16 | Johns Hopkins University (Including Medical School) | 5 |
| 17 | Missouri Botanical Garden | 5 |
| 18 | Indiana University | 4 |
| 19 | U. Illinois, Urbana | 4 |
| 20 | National Institute of Health / U.S. Public Health Service | 4 |
Analysis
University of Texas, Austin (12): This count is largely generated by J. T. Patterson (4 cited papers) and W. S. Stone (3 cited papers), primarily focusing on Drosophila genetics and evolution.
U. California, Berkeley (23): This high count is primarily driven by authors like Stebbins (who collaborated on 6 cited papers), Babcock (2 cited papers), and prolific contributors like Hall, E. R. (4 cited papers), Goldschmidt, and Miller, A. H., all affiliated with UCB.
U. Wisconsin, Madison (20): This ranking is largely attributed to collaborations involving Cumley, R. W. (6 cited papers), Irwin, M. R. (7 cited papers), and Cole, L. J. (3 cited papers), frequently publishing on immunological and genetic relationships.
Harvard University (18): This count incorporates staff from various Harvard entities listed in the address list, including Brues, C. T. (11 cited papers), Rollins, R. C. (4 cited papers), and Wetmore, R. H. (2 cited papers).
Carnegie Institution of Washington (16): This institution is represented by key experimental taxonomists and geneticists such as Jens Clausen and D. D. Keck, along with A. F. Blakeslee and F. E. Clements.
U. California, Los Angeles (15): This high frequency is attributable almost entirely to Carl Epling (12 cited papers) and H. S. Jennings (3 cited papers), focusing heavily on botany and zoology/genetics, respectively.
List the organisms named in the citations for the top 20 institutions (in terms of the highest number of citations in the Bibliography). Use the author addresses to identify the institutions. I want to know if specific organisms or groups of organisms are associated with specific institutions.
This analysis highlights distinct areas of institutional specialisation within speciation studies.
| Institution | Key Organisms / Taxonomic Focus | Institutional Specialization (Key Organisms Cited) |
| University of California, Berkeley (23 citations) | Crepis (Hawk's-beard), Paeonia (Peony), Nicotiana (Tobacco), Dipodomys (Kangaroo Rat), Tamias (Chipmunk), Fishes (General Ichthyology). | Plant Cytogenetics and Taxonomy(especially Crepis and Paeonia); Vertebrate Zoology (mammals and birds). |
| University of Wisconsin, Madison (20 citations) | Columba (Pigeons/Doves), Drosophila (Fruit Flies), Rhodospirillum rubrum, Bacillus salmonicida, Neurospora crassa. | Immunogenetics and Serology(determining species interrelationships based on blood chemistry, especially in doves). |
| Harvard University (18 citations) | Insects (Hymenoptera, Phoridae, Scelionidae, Fossil Braconidae), Salix(Willows), Physaria, Lesquerella, Juglandaceae. | Entomology (Taxonomy and Fossil Forms), Plant Taxonomy (Cruciferae and specific plant families). |
| Carnegie Institution of Washington (16 citations) | Achillea (Yarrow), Penstemon, Nicotiana, Drosophila (including D. melanogaster, D. pseudoobscura), Melandrium. | Experimental Taxonomy of Plants(Clausen, Keck, Hiesey); Cytogenetics(Polyploidy, especially in Drosophila and Melandrium). |
| U. California, Los Angeles (15 citations) | Salvia (Sage), Paramecium bursaria, Labiatae family, Aphanomyces laevis (on crayfish). | Plant Systematics (revisions of Salviaand allies); Protistan Genetics(Paramecium mating types/inheritance). |
| American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) (12 citations) | Birds (Owls, Caracaras, Petrels, Wrens, Quiscalus), Emballonura (Bats), Primates, Carnivora. | Ornithology and Vertebrate Systematics (geographic variation in birds); Primate/Mammalian Evolution(Anatomy/Paleontology). |
| University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (12 citations) | Peromyscus (Deer Mice), Hypsoblennius(Fish), Poa (Grass), The Invertebrates(General). | Vertebrate Genetics and Ecology(focused on variation and speciation in Peromyscus); Ichthyology. |
| University of Texas, Austin (12 citations) | Drosophila (specifically the D. virilis and D. mulleri groups), Zea-Euchlaena (Corn-Teosinte hybrids), Poa (Grass), Sorghum. | Drosophila Genetics (Hybridization, chromosome structure, and evolution of the virilis group). |
| University of Chicago (11 citations) | Termites, Ants (General and Army-Ants), Rana pipiens (Frog), Bacillus megatherium, Schizomycetes (Bacteria). | Animal Ecology and Behavior(especially social insects like termites and ants); Microbial Speciation. |
| Texas Agricultural Experimental Station (9 citations) | Gossypium (Cotton), Sorghum, Lycopersicon (Tomato), Zophyrantheae. | Crop Genetics and Improvement(Polyploidy and resistance in Cotton and Sorghum). |
| Cornell University (8 citations) | Rahn's Bacteria (General), Silene, Robinia, Avena (Oats), Pseudomonas. | Plant Taxonomy (revisions of North American flora); Microbiology(Bacteriology, biochemical classification). |
| Amherst College (7 citations) | Drosophila melanogaster, D. pseudoobscura. | Experimental Genetics (studying mutation frequency and somatic effects of temperature in Drosophila). |
| U. Colorado, Boulder (6 citations) | Delphinium, Githopsis, Triturus pyrrhogaster (Salamander), Cladocera, Copepoda. | Plant Taxonomy (Southwestern Flora); Aquatic Zoology. |
| U. Florida, Gainesville (6 citations) | Amphibia (Rana argolata, Hylidae, Hyla crucifera), Turtles, Crayfish, Orthoptera(Grasshoppers). | Herpetology (Reptile and Amphibiandistribution and characteristics); Entomology. |
| U. Minnesota, St. Paul/Minneapolis (6 citations) | Puccinia graminis tritici (Wheat rust), Avena (Oats), Actinomycetes, Myrmica(Ants), Hoplomutilla. | Plant Pathology/Mycology (Physiologic races of cereal pathogens); Entomology(Ants and Taxonomy). |
| Johns Hopkins University (5 citations) | Paramecium aurelia, Eupoltes (Ciliate), Primates (Human/Monkey anatomy), Amblystoma (Salamander). | Protistan Genetics (Mating types and inheritance); Primate Anatomy and Comparative Biology. |
| Missouri Botanical Garden (5 citations) | Weeds and Weed-like plants, Erythrina, Crepis, Calochortus. | Plant Taxonomy and Classification (The philosophy of the genus); Plant Genetics. |
| Indiana University (4 citations) | Paramecium aurelia, Quercus (Oaks), Tinospora, Fishes (Limnology). | Protistan Genetics (Mating types and self-sterility); Plant Morphology. |
| U. Illinois, Urbana (4 citations) | Sequoia, Branchiobdellidae (on Crayfish), Mussels (Naiades), Aspergillus. | Botany (Cytology/Morphology of Sequoia); Aquatic Zoology/Parasitology. |
| National Institute of Health / U.S. Public Health Service (4 citations) | Coliform Bacteria (Escherichia coli, Aerobacter aerogenes), Bacillus anthracis. | Bacteriology and Hygiene (Microbial variation, serology, and phase shifts in pathogenic bacteria). |